Endnotes

1. Garett Shrode, “The Mass Transit Fiscal Cliff: Estimating the Size and Scope of the Problem,” Eno Transportation Weekly, September 23, 2022; Jake Blumgart, “Taking the ‘Commuter’ out of America’s Rail Systems,” Governing, April 23, 2021.

2. New or expanded commuter rail service has undergone planning in Raleigh, North Carolina; Houston, Texas; San Jose, California; and Cleveland, Ohio, among many others. See Andy Peters, “Here’s Where First-of-Its-Kind Commuter Rail Project Grant Could Spur Development,” CoStar News, January 24, 2023.

3. National Transit Database, Federal Transit Administration, November 2024.

4. “Getting America Back to Work,” Kastle Systems, December 2024.

5. Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, March 27, 2020; Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Appropriations, December 2020; American Rescue Plan Act, March 11, 2021.

6. Safe Restart Agreement, September 2020.

7. See comments from Stephan Meier of Columbia University and Nick Bloom of Stanford University in Bailey Schultz, “2023 Was the Year Return-To-Office Died,” USA Today, December 21, 2023.

8. “National Transit Database (NTD) Glossary,” FTA, https://www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/national-transit-database-ntd-glossary.

9. Ibid. Commuter rail does not include Amtrak’s Downeaster Service and the Keystone service, although those services receive FTA funds and are technically classified as commuter rail by FTA.

10. Many have discussed the definition of “commuter rail.” For example, see Christof Spieler, “Are We Setting Up Commuter Rail to Fail?,” Rice University Magazine, Spring 2010.

11. Matthew Robare, “Parkway Residents Voice Concerns over Commuter Rail Fares,” Patriot Ledger, March 10, 2016.

12. “2022 NextGen National Household Travel Survey Core Data,” FHWA, 2022.

13. Sandy Smith, “What It Would Take to Turn ‘Commuter Rail’ to ‘Regional Rail’,” NextCity, May 26, 2021; John Besche, “Why Connecticut Is Investing in New Regional Rail,” Streetsblog USA, October 2, 2023; “Regional Rail for Metropolitan Boston,” TransitMatters, 2023; F. K. Plous, “How Metra Could Build Regional Rail in Chicago,” Chicago Tribune, March 9, 2023; Luz Lazo, “New Regional Rail Vision Aims to Bring DC, Maryland and Virginia Closer Together. But Can It Happen?,” Washington Post, March 25, 2021.

14. Cherrington, Rutter, and Morgan (2018); Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Table 1-40: U.S. Passenger-Miles (Millions), U.S. DOT, 2022.

15. Jake Blumgart, “How Philly Could Ride a Commuter Train Line Like a Subway,” The Works, nextcity.org, March 26, 2015.

16. Joe DePasquale, “Tri-Rail South Florida’s Commuter Rail System,” gettraveling.com, 2024.

17. National Transit Database, “Unlinked Passenger Trips 2000–2020,” FTA, May 2024.

18. Mallett (2022); Schultz, “2023 Was the Year”; Danielle Muoio, “‘A Different Way To Live And Work’: Commuter Rail Braces For Permanent Commuting Shifts,” Politico, June 10, 2021; Matthew Haag and Patrick McGeehan, “How Remote Work is Devastating New York City’s Commuter Rails,” New York Times, January 21, 2022; Scott Calvert and Jimmy Vielkind, “Commuter Railroads Face Murky Future After Pandemic,” Wall Street Journal, March 6, 2022.

19. Gary Kimbrough, “Metro Ridership Is in Free Fall. Why Won’t the Metro Board Act?,” Greater Greater Washington, March 14, 2019.

20. Replica is a proprietary data platform intended to inform analyses at DOTs, transit agencies, and others. For more information, visit https://www.replicahq.com/.

21. Due to the short station spacing, the Denver RTD market analysis used 1-mile-radius station catchment areas.

22. See “Seasonal Trip Table,” Replica, 2025, https://documentation.replicahq.com/docs/disaggregate-trip-tables.

23. This initial analysis excludes the Downeaster and Keystone services, which supplement commuter rail service in the Boston and Philadelphia regions, respectively, and are more akin to intercity passenger rail.

24. In Florida, 1989 marked the opening of Tri-Rail, the first commuter rail system to begin operations in at least 100 years. Since 1989, 15 new systems have begun operations. See Nelson and O’Neil (2019).

25. National Transit Database, “2022 TS2.1 Service Data and Operating Expense Time Series by Mode,” and “2023 TS3.1 Capital Expenditures Time Series by Mode,” FTA, September 2024.

26. National Transit Database, 2024.

27. Matthew Haag and Patrick McGeehan, “How Remote Work Is Devastating New York City’s Commuter Rails,” New York Times, January 21, 2022.

28. National Transit Database, 2024.

29. Garett Shrode, “Looking to the Horizon: How Agencies Are Anticipating the Mass Transit Fiscal Cliff,” Eno Transportation Weekly, November 4, 2022.

30. National Transit Database, 2024.

31. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, “Capital Expenditures,” U.S. DOT, January 6, 2012.

32. Ibid.

33. See “Capital Investment Grant Program,” FTA, 2024.

34. National Transit Database, 2024.

35. Shrode, “Mass Transit Fiscal Cliff.”

36. Jeff Davis, “COVID Aid Is Slowing Regular Mass Transit Spending,” Eno Transportation Weekly, November 19, 2021.

37. Review of agency budgets at New York MTA, Virginia Railway Express, and Chicago Transit Authority, 2024. See also Philip Plotch, “Climbing Down from the Fiscal Cliff; Lessons from Transit Advocates,” Eno Transportation Weekly, November 9, 2023.

38. “MnDOT, Met Council Announce Likely End to Northstar Commuter Rail,” Progressive Railroading, February 26, 2025.

39. Staff review of commuter rail agency timetables, 2024.

40. Metropolitan Council (2023); National Transit Database, 2024.

41. See MBTA, “How to Ride the MBTA: The Basics,” https://www.mbta.com/about/how-to-ride-the-mbta-the-basics.

42. See archived MBTA timetables: “Dave’s Archive of Historical/Old MBTA Commuter Rail Schedules,” updated August 4, 2024, https://www.dbperry.net/MBTA/index.html.

43. Discussions with MBTA staff, October 2024.

44. National Transit Database, “Complete Monthly Ridership (Adjusted): September 2024.” Comparison made September 2024 to September 2019.

45. “$10 Commuter Rail Weekends,” MBTA, accessed October 2024.

46. Discussions with MBTA staff, October 2024.

47. Review of legacy agency service plans, travel markets, and promotional activities.

48. Discussions with MBTA staff, October 2024.

49. APTA (2024); “Our History,” METRA, 2024.

50. “Legislative Update: Lawmakers Take Important Steps to Make Transit System Less Reliant on Fares,” Connections Blog, Regional Transportation Authority, June 1, 2023.

51. Tax-free commuter benefits, also known as qualified transportation fringes, are employer-provided voluntary benefit programs that allow employees to reduce their monthly commuting expenses for transit, vanpooling, bicycling, and work-related parking costs. The benefit is a federal tax benefit authorized under the Internal Revenue Code Section 132(f), Qualified Transportation Fringe. Monies used for these eligible expenses are excludable from gross income subject to federal taxes. Many states also exclude these monies from state and local taxes. Eligible transit benefits include expenses the employer pays associated with employees using any public or privately operated transit service.

52. “Legislative Update,” Connections.

53. “Metra 2024 Fare Proposal: Metra Operations Planning and Analysis,” Metra, 2023.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Information from interview with Metra staff, December 2024.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Unlinked Passenger Trips and Revenue Vehicle Miles as reported by “September 2024 Complete Monthly Ridership (adjusted),” National Transit Database, September 2024.

60. Ibid.

61. “Getting America Back to Work: Weekly Occupancy,” Kastle Systems, November 2024.

62. Information from interview with Metra staff, December 2024.

63. See “Caltrain Electrification: Program Overview,” Caltrain, 2024.

64. See “About Caltrain,” https://www.Caltrain.com/about-Caltrain.

65. Discussion with Caltrain staff, Ted Burgwyn, November 2024.

66. “Project Section: San Francisco to San Jose,” California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2024.

67. “Caltrain Electrification,” Caltrain.

68. Ibid.

69. Posted Caltrain Schedules, accessed Fall 2024.

70. Caltrain Fare Media Sales-Based Ridership Estimates, accessed Fall 2024.

71. Julie Johnson, “California Electricity Prices Highest in U.S.: ‘Everyone Is Getting Squeezed’,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 2, 2024.

72. Discussions with Caltrain staff, November 2024.

73. See “Metrolink Schedule Change,” Metrolink, 2024.

74. Metrolink Meeting of the Board of Directors, Friday, January 26, 2024. Online recording of meeting and presentation materials, https://metrolinktrains.com/about/board-meetings/agendas-documents/.

75. “AboutDC,” Metrolink, 2024.

76. Discussions with Metrolink staff, November 2024.

77. “SCORE Fact Sheet,” Metrolink, accessed December 2024.

78. Mischa Wanek-Libman, “Metrolink SCORE(s) State Funds for Regional Rail Improvements,” RT&S blog, August 23, 2018.

79. “SCORE Fact Sheet,” Metrolink.

80. Missy Colman, “Metro Board Funds Restoration of Metrolink’s Antelope Valley Line, Additional Weekend Service,” Los Angeles Metro, October 5, 2023.

81. Metrolink Meeting of the Board, January 26, 2024.

82. “Metrolink Debuts Significant Service Increase with More Midday Options on Oct. 21,” Metrolink News, September 19, 2024.

83. Metrolink Meeting of the Board, January 26, 2024.

84. Ibid.

85. National Transit Database, 2024.

86. Metrolink Meeting of the Board, January 26, 2024.

87. See “Orange County Line Schedule Update,” Metrolink, 2024.

88. “Metrolink Schedule Change,” Metrolink, 2024.

89. “CEO Update,” The Link (blog), Metrolink, October 2024.

90. Travis Schlepp, “Metrolink Admits Expanded Service Off to a ‘Bumpy Start’,” KTLA 5 News, October 25, 2024.

91. “Service: FrontRunner,” Utah Transit Authority, 2024.

92. “UTA Moves 2050: Long-Range Transit Plan,” Utah Transit Authority, March 13, 2024; Discussions with UTA staff, November 2024.

93. Alixel Cabrera, “UTA Needs to Innovate in Performance, Legislative Audit Says, but Other Challenges Linger,” Utah News Dispatch, April 19, 2024; “FrontRunner Forward: Strategic Double Track Recommended Service Alternative Overview,” Utah Transit Authority, May 2023.

94. Discussion with UTA Staff, November 2024.

95. Jasen Lee, “UTA Adds More Trains, Changes to FrontRunner Schedule,” KSL News, February 5, 2013.

96. “2021 UTA Continuous Improvement Highlights,” Utah Transit Authority downloads, February 2022.

97. Discussion with UTA Staff, November 2024.

98. Ibid.

99. Ibid.

100. Example from UTA staff presentation obtained from the authors, October 2024.

101. See “Transit-Oriented Development,” Build America Bureau, https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/TOD.

102. “Transit-Oriented Development and Responsible Growth,” State of Connecticut, 2024, https://portal.ct.gov/decd/content/community-development/01_project_type/transit-oriented-development-and-responsible-growth.

103. See commuter rail definition in Section 1.1 of this report.

104. “CTrail Hartford Line Schedule,” Valid November 11, 2024, Connecticut DOT, November 2024.

105. Regional Plan Association (2013); “The Role of CTDOT in TOD,” Connecticut DOT, provided November 2024.

106. “Recipients for Pilot Program for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Planning Awards,” FTA, February 8, 2016, https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/recipients-pilot-program-transit-oriented-development-tod-planning-awards.

107. Information provided by CTDOT Staff, December 2024.

108. Ibid.

109. This list is not a comprehensive assessment of TOD in Connecticut.

110. “Notice of Scoping for the Berlin TOD Boulevard Project,” Connecticut State Council on Environmental Quality, accessed December 2024; “TOD-focused Revitalization Strategies Around Berlin’s Historic Train Station,” CivicMoxie, accessed December 2024; Jennifer Glatz, “Berlin Officials Break Ground on New Development Project Downtown,” Fox61, September 16, 2020.

111. “Enfield Railroad Station Hartford Line Rail Program,” FRA, August 29, 2024, https://railroads.dot.gov/rail-network-development/environment/environmental-reviews/enfield-railroad-station-hartford-line; “Public Invited to Meeting Regarding the Proposed Railroad Station in Enfield,” CTDOT, press release, September 22, 2023; “Enfield Scoop: New Development Planned Near New Train Station!,” Connecticut Scoop, September 17, 2024; https://www.theconnecticutscoop.com/all-ct-posts/enfield-scoop-new-development-planned-near-new-train-station.

112. Parsons Brinckerhoff (2011; 2012); “Gov. Malloy: Major Improvements in Downtown Meriden Will Encourage Economic and Transit-Oriented Development While Improving Quality of Life for Residents,” CTDOT, press release, July 8, 2015; “Transit-Oriented Development,” City of Meriden, accessed December 2024.

113. “Public Invited to Informational Meeting,” CTDOT; “Project 0304-0029 Webpage,” CTDOT, https://portal.ct.gov/dot/projects/0304-0029-naugatuck?language=en_US (accessed December 2024); “Naugatuck Passenger Rail Station Design and Transit-Oriented Development,” Michael Baker International, https://mbakerintl.com/en/project/naugatuck-passenger-rail-station-design-and-transit-oriented-development (accessed December 2024).

114. “Windsor Locks Train Station Improvements,” CTDOT, press release, September 22, 2022, https://portal.ct.gov/dot/ctdot-construction-advisories/2022/windsor-locks-train-station-improvements?language=en_US; “Governor Lamont Breaks Ground on New Train Station in Windsor Locks,” CTDOT, press release, September 22, 2022, https://portal.ct.gov/dot/ctdot-press-releases/2022/governor-lamont-breaks-ground-on-new-train-station-in-windsor-locks?language=en_US; “Windsor Locks Train Station Fact Sheet,” CTDOT, https://windsorlocksct.org/2022/09/13/windsor-locks-train-station-fact-sheet/ (accessed December 2024); Susan Danseyar, “$42M Development Project Next to New Train Station in Windsor Locks Moves Forward,” CT Insider, Feb 21, 2024; Greg Bordonaro, “Windsor Locks Eyes $45M Mixed-Use Development Around Planned Train Station,” Hartford Business, May 4, 2020.

115. Information provided by CTDOT Staff, November 2024.

116. “Hartford Line Station Ons and Offs,” CTDOT, provided November 2024.

117. See “Working from Home and the US-Europe Divide,” The Economist, May 1, 2024.

118. DB InfraGO AG, “Our Profile,” 2024, https://www.dbinfrago.com/web-en/profile-12541196.

119. David Burroughs, “Germany Introduces €49 Ticket as 9-Euro-Ticket Successor,” International Railway Journal, November 3, 2022.

120. Juergen Ross, “Der VBB stellt sich vor,” Presentation by VBB, May 12, 2023.

121. DB InfraGO, “Our Profile,” https://www.dbinfrago.com/web-en/profile-12541196#.

122. See MBTA Case Study; Discussions with MBTA staff, October 2024.

123. Office of the Governor of Minnesota, “Governor Pawlenty Announces Agreement with Railway for Northstar Commuter Rail Project,” press release, May 8, 2006; Joe Bruno, “Norfolk Southern Considering Transaction That Could Bring Commuter Rail to Lake Norman,” WSOC-TV, October 18, 2023; Metra, “Union Pacific West Line Third Mainline Track Project”; Virginia Passenger Rail Authority, “VPRA and Norfolk Southern in Discussions for New Rail Agreement,” news release, June 4, 2024.