Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda (2025)

Chapter: 2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning

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Previous Chapter: 1 Engineering Safety-Critical Systems in the Age of Machine Learning
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Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 29 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 30 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 31 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 32 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 33 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 34 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 35 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 36 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 37 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 38 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 39 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 40 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 41 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 41
Page 42 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 43 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 44 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 44
Page 45 Cite
Suggested Citation: "2 State of the Art, Promises, and Risks of Machine Learning." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. Machine Learning for Safety-Critical Applications: Opportunities, Challenges, and a Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/27970.
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Page 45
Next Chapter: 3 System Engineering with Machine Learning Components for Safety-Critical Applications
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