 |
|
| TCRP Synthesis 178 A SYNTHESIS OF TRANSIT PRACTICE |
Transit Cooperative Research Program Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration |
Microtransit Solutions
in Rural Communities
ON-DEMAND ALTERNATIVES TO DIAL-A-RIDE SERVICES
AND UNPRODUCTIVE COVERAGE ROUTES
TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT SELECTION COMMISSION*
CHAIR
Jeanne Krieg
Eastern Contra Costa Transit Authority (retired)
VICE CHAIR
Jameson Auten
Lane Transit District
SECRETARY/TREASURER
Ryan I. Daniel
St. Cloud Metro Bus
IMMEDIATE PAST CHAIR
Doran J. Barnes
Foothill Transit
MEMBERS
Andrea Burnside
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority
Julia Castillo
Heart of Iowa Transit Authority
April Chan
San Mateo County Transit District
Desmond Cole
Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority
Carolyn Flowers
InfraStrategies LLC
David Harris
New Mexico Department of Transportation
Tim Healy
Sound Transit
Brendon Hemily
Hemily and Associates
Vince Huerta
East Texas Council of Governments
Joseph Leader
HDR
Benjamin Limmer
Connecticut Department of Transportation
Bacarra Mauldin
Memphis Area Transit Authority
Jessica Mefford-Miller
Valley Metro
Raymond Melleady
USSC Group
Brad Miller
Pinellas Suncoast Transit Authority (PSTA)
Elizabeth Presutti
Charlotte Area Transit System
Catherine Rinaldi
MTA Metro North Railroad, NY
Jeffrey Rosenberg
Amalgamated Transit Union
Justin Stuehrenberg
Madison Metro Transit
Frank White, III
Kansas City Area Transportation Authority
Kimberly J. Williams
Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County
Nigel H.M. Wilson
MIT
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Victoria Sheehan
TRB
Paul P. Skoutelas
APTA
Jim Tymon
AASHTO
[Vacant]
FTA
Kristin White
FHWA
TOPS COMMISSION STAFF ADVISOR
Arthur L. Guzzetti
APTA
SECRETARY
Monique R. Evans
TRB
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2025 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
OFFICERS
CHAIR: Leslie S. Richards, Professor of Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
VICE CHAIR: Joel M. Jundt, Secretary of Transportation, South Dakota Department of Transportation, Pierre
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR: Victoria Sheehan, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC
MEMBERS
James F. Albaugh, President and CEO, The Boeing Company (retired), Scottsdale, AZ
Carlos M. Braceras, Executive Director, Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City
Douglas C. Ceva, Vice President, Customer Lead Solutions, Prologis, Inc., Jupiter, FL
Nancy Daubenberger, Commissioner of Transportation, Minnesota Department of Transportation, St. Paul
Marie Therese Dominguez, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany
Garrett Eucalitto, Commissioner, Connecticut Department of Transportation, Newington
Andrew Fremier, Executive Director, Metropolitan Transportation Commission, San Francisco, CA
Martha Grabowski, Professor Emerita, Information Systems, Le Moyne College, Madden College of Business & Economics, Cazenovia, NY
Randell Iwasaki, President and CEO, Iwasaki Consulting Services, Walnut Creek, CA
Carol A. Lewis, Professor, Transportation Studies, Texas Southern University, Houston
Hani S. Mahmassani, W.A. Patterson Distinguished Chair in Transportation; Director, Transportation Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL
Scott C. Marler, Director, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames
Ricardo Martinez, Adjunct Professor of Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Decatur, GA
Russell McMurry, Commissioner, Georgia Department of Transportation, Atlanta
Craig E. Philip, Research Professor and Director, VECTOR, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN
Steward T.A. Pickett, Distinguished Senior Scientist, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY
Susan A. Shaheen, Professor and Co-Director, Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California, Berkeley
Marc Williams, Executive Director, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Michael R. Berube, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Sustainable Transportation, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC
Steven Cliff, Executive Officer, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento
LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Germantown, MD
Firas Ibrahim, Director, Office of Research, Development, and Technology, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology (OST-R), Washington, DC
Jason Kelly, Deputy Commanding General for Civil Works and Emergency Operations, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
Sandra Knight, President, WaterWonks, LLC, Washington, DC
Zahra “Niloo” Parvinashtiani, Engineer, Mobility Consultant Solutions, Iteris Inc., Fairfax, VA, and Chair, TRB Young Members Coordinating Council
Chris Rocheleau, Acting Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC
Gloria Shepherd, Acting Deputy Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC
Karl Simon, Director, Transportation and Climate Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Paul P. Skoutelas, President and CEO, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
Jim Tymon, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC
___________________
* Membership as of February 2025.
* Membership as of February 2025.
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
TCRP SYNTHESIS 178
Microtransit Solutions
in Rural Communities
ON-DEMAND ALTERNATIVES TO DIAL-A-RIDE SERVICES
AND UNPRODUCTIVE COVERAGE ROUTES
A Synthesis of Transit Practice
Alanna McKeeman
FOURSQUARE ITP
Washington, DC
Jessica Klion
FOURSQUARE ITP
Philadelphia, PA
Laura Duke
FOURSQUARE ITP
Washington, DC
Subject Areas
Public Transportation • Safety and Human Factors • Transportation, General
Research sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the American Public Transportation Association
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and introduce innovations into the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), undertakes research and other technical activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of TCRP includes various transit research fields including planning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices.
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by the three cooperating organizations: FTA; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and APTA. APTA is responsible for forming the independent governing board, designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission.
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the TOPS Commission to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects. As part of the evaluation, the TOPS Commission defines funding levels and expected products.
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.
Because research cannot have the desired effect if products fail to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on disseminating TCRP results to the intended users of the research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural transit industry practitioners.
TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can cooperatively address common operational problems. TCRP results support and complement other ongoing transit research and training programs.
TCRP SYNTHESIS 178
Project J-07, Topic SB-41
ISSN 1073-4880
ISBN 978-0-309-99179-7
© 2025 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
COPYRIGHT INFORMATION
Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.
Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.
NOTICE
The report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.
The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors.
The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications.
The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Transit Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names or logos appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report.
Published reports of the
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
are available from
National Academies Press
500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360
Washington, DC 20001
(800) 624-6242
and can be ordered through the Internet by going to
https://nap.nationalacademies.org
Printed in the United States of America
The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. John L. Anderson is president.
The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.
The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.
Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.
The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major program divisions of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to mobilize expertise, experience, and knowledge to anticipate and solve complex transportation-related challenges. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 8,500 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state departments of transportation, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation.
Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.
COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR TCRP SYNTHESIS 178
Monique R. Evans, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Gwen Chisholm Smith, Manager, Transit Cooperative Research Program
Emily Griswold, Associate Program Officer
Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications
Heather DiAngelis, Associate Director of Publications
TCRP PROJECT J-07 PANEL
Rachel Dungca, Metro Transit, Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minneapolis, MN (Chair)
Jameson Auten, Lane Transit District, Eugene, OR
Mallory Avis, Battle Creek Transit, Battle Creek, MI
Raymond Chan, Arcadis IBI Group, Kettering, OH
Roderick B. Diaz, Southern California Regional Rail Authority, Los Angeles, CA
Mark Donaghy, Petersburg, KY
Christian T. Kent, Christian T. Kent, Transit Management Consulting, LLC, Virginia Beach, VA
Beverly Neff, San Diego Metropolitan Transit System, San Diego, CA
Ed F. Watt, WattADR, Rockaway Park, NY
David C. Wilcock, VHB, Boston, MA
Robert Earl Williams, Ann Arbor Transportation Authority, Ann Arbor, MI
Tara Echols, FTA Liaison
Arthur L. Guzzetti, APTA Liaison
Billy Terry, National Transit Institute Liaison
TOPIC SB-41 PANEL
David Armijo, South Central Regional Transit District, Anthony, NM
Mallory Avis, Battle Creek Transit, Battle Creek, MI
Rollin Baker, Los Angeles County Transportation Authority (LACMTA), Altadena, CA
Jeramy Card, Lane Transit District, Eugene, OR
Michelle Coats, North Central Kansas Coordinated Transit District, Salina, KS
Matt Marquez, San Diego Metropolitan Transit System, San Diego, CA
Kendra Sue McGeady, Northeast Oklahoma Tribal Transit Consortium, Big Cabin, OK
Sagar Patni, Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates, Lake Mary, FL
Gwo-Wei Torng, FTA Liaison
ABOUT THE TCRP SYNTHESIS PROGRAM
Transit administrators, engineers, and researchers often face problems for which information already exists, either in documented form or as undocumented experience and practice. This information may be fragmented, scattered, and unevaluated. As a consequence, full knowledge of what has been learned about a problem may not be brought to bear on its solution. Costly research findings may go unused, valuable experience may be overlooked, and due consideration may not be given to recommended practices for solving or alleviating the problem.
There is information on nearly every subject of concern to the transit industry. Much of it derives from research or from the work of practitioners faced with problems in their day-to-day work. To provide a systematic means for assembling and evaluating such useful information and to make it available to the entire transit community, the Transit Cooperative Research Program Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Commission authorized the Transportation Research Board to undertake a continuing study. This study, TCRP Project J-07, “Synthesis of Information Related to Transit Practices,” searches out and synthesizes useful knowledge from all available sources and prepares concise, documented reports on specific topics. Reports from this endeavor constitute a TCRP report series, Synthesis of Transit Practice.
This synthesis series reports on current knowledge and practice, in a compact format, without the detailed directions usually found in handbooks or design manuals. Each report in the series provides a compendium of the best knowledge available on those measures found to be the most successful in resolving specific problems.
FOREWORD
By Emily Griswold
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
With the advent of on-demand technology, on-demand transit services have provided cost-effective, immediate-fulfillment, shared-ride transportation for the general public in areas where or at times when fixed-route service is not viable. Increasingly, transit entities have implemented on-demand models to expand public transit access to new areas or times and, by doing so, have tested the demand in these areas and at these times to potentially replace underperforming routes or route segments with on-demand models.
On-demand transit has been successfully implemented in portions of rural areas with a high demand density. In such a setting, the high demand density enables a transit entity to directly or through a contractor cost-effectively operate on-demand transit as a dedicated service as an alternative to fixed-route service. Moreover, such high-demand settings are more apt to attract transportation network companies (TNCs) and taxis, which can provide on-demand trips either as the primary vendors or in support of a dedicated fleet.
This synthesis documents the current state of practice of transit entities that have implemented on-demand services in rural settings. The authors conducted a literature review and an exploratory survey of 27 transit providers. The agencies responding to the survey ranged widely in terms of ridership, with between 55 and 9,625 passenger trips per month, with all but one agency providing at least 500 passenger trips per month; most agencies had started their service in 2022 or 2023. In addition, the synthesis contains seven case examples of transit agencies that have implemented microtransit in rural settings. These case examples provide insights on services provided, key challenges, notable practices, and lessons learned.
Alanna McKeeman, Jessica Klion, and Laura Duke collected and synthesized the information and wrote the report, under the guidance of a panel of experts in the subject area. The members of the topic panel are acknowledged on page iv. This synthesis is an immediately useful document that records the practices that were acceptable within the limitations of the knowledge available at the time of its preparation. As progress in research and practice continues, new knowledge will be added to that now at hand.
This page intentionally left blank.
CONTENTS
On-Demand Microtransit Service Design Overview, Use Cases, and Operating Models
Procurement of Rural On-Demand Microtransit Services
Marketing and Customer Education
Performance Measurement of On-Demand Microtransit Services
Survey Respondent Characteristics
Baldwin Regional Area Transit System, BRATS On-Demand
Bay Area Transit Authority, BATA Link
Heart of Iowa Regional Transit Agency, HIRTA On Demand
This page intentionally left blank.
