E

Supplemental Material to the Comprehensive Research Agenda for CO₂ and Coal Waste Utilization

As presented in Chapter 11, the committee developed a comprehensive research agenda for CO₂ and coal waste utilization that identifies key research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) needs to enable future utilization opportunities. This report’s research agenda updates and expands on the one from the 2019 National Academies’ report Gaseous Carbon Waste Streams Utilization: Status and Research Needs, differing in three key ways: a change in scope of carbon feedstocks, the focus on products needed for a net-zero future, and advances in the field over the last 5 years. As noted above, the committee was charged with identifying research needs for CO₂ and coal waste utilization, specifically for making products that could contribute to a net-zero, circular carbon economy. The 2019 report committee examined research needs for CO₂, methane, and biogas utilization, and it did not explicitly consider product needs in a net-zero future. This difference in framing, a desire to be additive rather than duplicative, and technological advances since 2019 resulted in the 2024 research agenda that places more emphasis on applied and enabling research needs for CO₂ utilization, building on the more basic science research needs covered in 2019, along with highlighting crosscutting aspects like process integration. This committee also examined in more depth research needs for producing long-lived, elemental carbon products from CO₂, which were largely not covered in the 2019 report but could play a role in durably storing carbon in a net-zero future.

This appendix provides additional context about the development of the research agenda, including details about the research agenda descriptors and information about federal funders of CO₂ and coal utilization and enabling technologies. It also elaborates on the overarching research themes identified across CO₂ and coal waste utilization RD&D, illustrating connections among research needs for various technologies and processes. Finally, this appendix presents subsets of the full research agenda table with the research needs directed to each of the Department of Energy (DOE) offices sponsoring this study: Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, Basic Energy Sciences, Biological and Environmental Research, and Bioenergy Technologies.

RESEARCH AGENDA DESCRIPTORS

The research agenda items are classified as basic research, applied research, demonstration, or enabling, or some combination of the four. The committee uses the Office of Management and Budget’s definitions of basic and applied research (EOP 2023, p. 280):

• Basic research—“Experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts. Basic research may include activities with

• broad or general applications in mind, such as the study of how plant genomes change, but should exclude research directed towards a specific application or requirement, such as the optimization of the genome of a specific crop species.”
• Applied research—“Original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. Applied research is, however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective.”

Research agenda items classified as demonstration are those that call for projects to test CO₂ utilization technologies in real-world conditions to facilitate scale up and indicate market viability. Research agenda items classified as enabling are those that are necessary for CO₂ utilization to contribute to a net-zero future but are not research on CO₂ utilization technologies or processes themselves. Examples include basic and applied research on non-CO₂ feedstocks (e.g., clean hydrogen), life cycle assessment (LCA) and techno-economic assessment (TEA) tools, infrastructure development (e.g., CO₂ pipelines, clean hydrogen generation), resource mapping, and understanding of public perception of CO₂ utilization technologies.

Carbon dioxide and coal waste conversion processes span across technology readiness levels (TRLs), with differing needs for basic research, applied research, technology demonstrations, and research on enabling technologies and processes. Sorting the research needs for CO₂ and coal waste utilization processes by research type, as shown in Figure E-1, can provide insight into the general state of the field and where future research and development (R&D) investment might be best placed. For example, the majority of the research needs identified for chemical CO₂ conversion to elemental carbon and organic products are classified as basic research. The biological CO₂ utilization research needs are more evenly split across basic and applied research. For coal waste utilization, applied research is the primary need whereas for mineralization, there is a more even distribution across basic, applied, demonstration, and enabling research.

The research agenda (Table 11-1) also indicates the relevant research area, product class, and product lifetime for each research agenda item. Research area categories are mineralization, chemical, biological, coal waste utilization, LCA/TEA, markets, infrastructure, and societal impacts. For conversions of CO₂ and coal waste,

a subprocess is sometimes included—for example, chemical–electrochemical, biological–photosynthetic. Based on the research need and research area, product classes are identified; these include construction materials, elemental carbon materials, chemicals, polymers, coal waste–derived carbon products, and metal coal waste by-products. The average product lifetime is also noted, where “short-lived” indicates a lifetime of less than 100 years and “long-lived” indicates a lifetime of greater than 100 years. For research needs classified as LCA/TEA, markets, infrastructure, and societal impacts, the product class is listed as “All,” with both “long-lived” and “short-lived” products being possible, as these research items would support development of any CO₂ utilization technology.

FEDERAL FUNDERS OF CO₂ UTILIZATION AND ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES

To determine the relevant funding agencies or other actors to include in the research agenda (Table 11-1), the committee reviewed current research portfolios of federal agencies that work on topics related to this study’s scope, including CO₂ capture, conversion, and transport; coal waste utilization; critical minerals recovery; LCA and TEA; materials discovery and development; separations; reactor design and engineering; resource mapping; product testing and certification; and environmental and health impacts of technologies. This assessment is summarized in Table E-1.

DOE is the primary funder of CO₂ and coal waste utilization research, via the Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management (FECM), the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO), the Office of Science (SC), the Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E), the Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization Office (IEDO), and the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies Office (AMMTO). Related to this study’s scope, DOE-FECM supports applied research on point source carbon capture, carbon dioxide removal, CO₂ transport, CO₂ and coal waste conversion, critical mineral and materials extraction from coal wastes, and development of LCA and TEA tools for carbon conversion (Claros 2023; Krynock 2023; Stoffa 2023).¹ DOE-BETO supports applied research on converting CO₂ to fuels and chemicals via photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic biological routes (Sterner 2023). Basic Energy Sciences (BES) within DOE-SC supports basic research on thermo-, electro-, plasma-, and photo-catalytic CO₂ conversion; biomimetic systems for CO₂ conversion; CO₂ mineralization; catalyst and materials discovery; separations; and direct air capture (McLean and Miranda 2023). Biological and Environmental Research (BER) within DOE-SC supports research on the discovery and design of novel metabolic processes and development of cell/cell-free systems for CO₂ utilization (Anderson 2023). ARPA-E funds high-risk, high-reward energy technologies, with current and past programs related to carbon capture and storage, CO₂ utilization in building materials, CO₂ conversion to fuels and chemicals, CO₂ mineralization for metal extraction, and “exploratory topics” on direct air and ocean capture of CO₂ and electricity system models for carbon capture and storage (Sofos et al. 2023). DOE-IEDO supports applied research on carbon capture, use of low-carbon fuels and feedstocks in industry (including those produced from CO₂), and CO₂ mineralization. DOE-AMMTO supports applied research on materials and manufacturing processes that can support clean energy technologies and a circular carbon economy, as well as research on establishing domestic critical minerals supply chains.

Additional work on topics relevant for this report is supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Transportation (DOT), the Department of Defense (DoD), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). NSF funds basic research across a wide variety of topics, including chemical catalysis and mechanisms, chemical and biological separations, materials discovery and development, polymers, electrochemical systems, reaction engineering, and design and operation of civil infrastructure (NSF n.d.). EPA supports research on human health risks from environmental stressors, environmental impacts of clean energy technologies, embodied carbon in products, LCA tools, and chemical product safety (EPA 2024). DOT supports research on pipeline safety (PHMSA 2017), sustainable fuels (FAA 2024), and pavement materials like concrete and aggregates (FHWA 2021). DoD funds CO₂ conversion to aviation fuels from air or water through the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR n.d.); basic and applied research on (electro)chemical interactions in marine environments through the Office of Naval Research (ONR n.d.); basic research on electrochemistry, polymer chemistry, microbiology, materials design and behavior, and complex systems modeling through the Army Research Laboratory (ARL 2024);

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¹ This includes research performed and supported by the National Energy Technology Laboratory.

TABLE E-1 Carbon Capture and Utilization Research Across Federal Agencies

* Including research performed through the National Energy Technology Laboratory.

NOTE: IEDO = Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization Office; LCA = life cycle assessment; NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; TEA = technoeconomic assessment.

and CO₂ conversion, critical minerals recovery, and extraction and separation of rare earth elements through the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA n.d.). To meet its 2030 emissions reduction target, DoD funds research for advanced technological solutions to support the commercialization of early-stage carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) projects, first-of-a-kind demonstration projects, and early markets for low-carbon concrete and other construction materials. NOAA funds research on ocean-based carbon capture and mineralization (NOAA 2024). USGS conducts research on energy and mineral resources, including resource mapping (USGS n.d.).

As discussed in Chapter 4, DOE’s Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programs provide funding for small businesses to conduct R&D with an ultimate goal of commercialization (DOE n.d.). The SBIR and STTR programs coordinate with offices across DOE, including those that support research on CO₂ and coal waste utilization: FECM, BES, BER, and Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Thus, grants through the SBIR/STTR programs could be used to address some of the research needs described in Table 11-1.

RESEARCH THEMES

Looking across the specific research needs for CO₂ and coal waste utilization, and the technologies and processes that will facilitate their deployment at scale, 16 overarching research themes emerged. Some research needs fit under multiple themes. The 16 themes can be classified into three broad categories of (1) reaction-level understanding, (2) systems-level understanding, and (3) demonstration and deployment needs (see Table E-2). Reaction-level understanding encompasses research at the atomic or molecular level that focuses on a specific reaction or process. Systems-level understanding includes research on process design and integration, modeling of complex systems, and environmental and societal impacts of technologies. Demonstration and deployment needs are items that will facilitate commercialization and scale up of CO₂ and coal waste utilization technologies, such as certification of products, deployment of required infrastructure, and development of test facilities. The research themes within each of these categories are discussed in the following sections, highlighting research that could benefit multiple approaches to CO₂ and coal waste utilization. Two research themes are classified under multiple categories. “Computational modeling and machine learning” is categorized as both reaction-level understanding and systems-level understanding because such research is needed at both scales. Similarly, “reactor design and reaction engineering” includes research needs related to systems-level understanding as well as demonstration and deployment. Figure E-2 illustrates the overlap of research themes across various CO₂ and coal waste utilization processes.

Reaction-Level Understanding

Fundamental Knowledge

A better fundamental understanding of materials and chemical processes is needed for CO₂ utilization approaches at low TRL, such as CO₂ conversion to elemental carbon products, photo(electro)chemical and

TABLE E-2 Classification of Research Themes for CO₂ and Coal Waste Utilization

plasmachemical CO₂ conversion to organic products, and for some biological CO₂ and coal waste conversions. This challenge could be addressed through increased support for materials discovery and characterization, studies of mechanism and selectivity for enzymes and chemical reactions, modeling and simulations, and development of tools to monitor local reaction environments. Research agenda items 5-G, 5-K, 6-A, 6-E, 7-H, 7-J, 7-N, 8-C, 8-D, 8-E, 9-F, and 9-K describe needs related to improving fundamental knowledge.

Catalyst Innovation and Optimization

Discovery, development, and improvement of catalysts is a key research need for many CO₂ utilization approaches, including conversion of CO₂ to elemental carbon materials, fuels, chemicals, and polymers via thermochemical, electrochemical, photo(electro)chemical, and plasmachemical catalytic routes as well as electrochemically driven CO₂ mineralization. Specifically, R&D is needed to identify catalysts that are more active, selective, stable, and robust to impurities, and ideally derived from abundant elements for improved scalability. For thermochemical CO₂ conversion, discovery research into catalysts that can accommodate alternative heating methods like (pulsed) electrical heating could yield performance, energy, and efficiency improvements. Improved electrocatalysts are needed for low- and high-temperature electrochemical CO₂ conversions, for operation in biologically amenable conditions and production of bio-compatible intermediates to incorporate into electro-bio hybrid systems, and for water oxidation or alternative anodic reactions to improve the cost and efficiency of electrochemical CO₂ conversions. Catalysts for rapid, stereoselective co-polymerization of a broader class of monomers with CO₂, especially those that can lead to polymers with properties more like thermoplastics and/or thermosets, would help to further the development of CO₂-derived polymers. Research agenda items 5-F, 6-B, 6-C, 6-D, 7-A, 7-B, 7-E, 7-F, 7-I, 7-N, and 8-E describe needs related to catalyst innovation and optimization.

Genetic Manipulation

The development of new, more efficient genetic manipulation tools could enhance the efficiency of biological CO₂ fixation and improve understanding of carbon metabolism. Research agenda item 8-B describes research needs related to genetic manipulation.

Metabolic Understanding and Engineering

Biological CO₂ conversion would benefit from improved understanding of carbon metabolism, which, as noted above, could be achieved with better genetic manipulation tools. Using this knowledge, metabolic engineering of microorganisms can help to overcome biochemical, bioenergetic, and metabolic limits to improve efficiency, titer, and productivity of biological CO₂ utilization systems. Research agenda items 8-A, 8-B, and 8-C describe research needs related to metabolic understanding and engineering.

Microbial Engineering

Advances in microbial engineering could improve the productivities and titer of electro-bio hybrid systems. Research agenda item 8-F describes research needs related to microbial engineering.

Separations

Separations are a key enabling technology for CO₂ and coal waste utilization. Efficient separations are required for both the feedstock streams (e.g., CO₂ purification, separation of mineral matter from carbon in coal wastes) and the product streams (e.g., separation of catalyst from solid carbon product, separation of multiple products from each other). For electrochemical systems, development of cost-effective, scalable membrane materials that can function over a wide pH range could decrease overall costs of CO₂ conversion. Improving separations of critical minerals and rare earth elements from coal waste will require more selective, sustainable solvents and transformative systems for extractions both from solid (waste coal and coal combustion residuals) and liquid (e.g., acid

mine drainage) waste streams. Research into more selective, sustainable separations is similarly needed for carbon mineralization integrated with metal recovery. Research agenda items 3-B, 5-H, 6-G, 7-G, 9-C, 9-L, 9-M, 9-N, and 9-O describe research needs related to separations.

Computational Modeling and Machine Learning

Computational modeling and machine learning at the atomic or molecular scale can increase understanding of CO₂ or coal waste conversions and direct the discovery and development of improved catalysts and materials. For example, for biological CO₂ conversion, machine learning can be used to improve CO₂ fixation efficiency and optimize nutrient input, CO₂ delivery, and light penetration to achieve higher productivities in photosynthetic organisms. For electro- and photo(electro)-chemical CO₂ conversion, computational modeling tools—including quantum methods, ab initio molecular dynamics, and machine-learned force field molecular dynamics—can provide insights into charge transfer processes, solvent configurations, and structural characteristics of electrode/electrolyte interfaces. Atomic- and multi-scale computer simulations can also improve understanding of the complex carbon chemistry involved in transforming waste coal into useful solid-carbon products. Research agenda items 5-F, 7-A, 7-B, 7-E, 7-F, 7-H, 7-I, 7-J, 7-L, 7-N, 8-B, 8-C, and 9-F describe research needs related to computational modeling and machine learning at the reaction level.

Systems-Level Understanding

Reactor Design and Reaction Engineering

Research on reactor design and reaction engineering will provide critical systems-level understanding to help advance a technology along the technology readiness scale. CO₂ utilization reactors and reactions can require incorporation of different forms of energy, facilitation of multiple reaction steps, and maintenance of reactions, including in biological systems. For example, RD&D is needed to improve electrochemical cell design, develop cost-effective, scalable membrane materials, and monitor side reactions and membrane and electrode fouling issues for electrochemically driven CO₂ mineralization and electrochemical CO₂ conversion to chemicals and fuels. RD&D also is needed on devices, reactor design, and reaction engineering for photochemical, photoelectrochemical, plasmachemical, and biological CO₂ conversions to optimize performance metrics and help inform scale up. For thermochemical processes to convert CO₂ to chemicals and elemental carbon materials, improvements in reactor design and reaction engineering can facilitate the integration of low-carbon electricity and/or heat. Tandem processes and hybrid systems (see definitions in the “Integrated Systems” section below) that combine multiple CO₂ utilization approaches could be improved with increased research into process efficiency and systems optimization. Such research could also yield more efficient transformations of waste coal into long-lived solid carbon products with lower embodied carbon than existing products. Research agenda items 5-C, 5-F, 5-G, 5-H, 6-B, 6-F, 6-H, 7-D, 7-G, 7-K, 7-M, 8-A, 8-D, 8-G, 8-H, and 9-D describe needs related to reactor design and reaction engineering at the systems level.

Integrated Systems

Integrated systems for CO₂ utilization refer to the combination of two or more conversion approaches (mineralization, thermochemical, electrochemical, photo(electro)chemical, plasmachemical, biological), or the integration of capture and conversion, to produce any of the product classes within the scope of this report (inorganic carbonates, elemental carbon materials, chemicals, fuels, polymers). This term encompasses both tandem processes (a subclass of integrated systems involving the combination of two or more conversion routes in sequence) and hybrid systems (a subclass of integrated systems involving a combination of biological and nonbiological components). A significant opportunity is integrated CO₂ capture and conversion, which removes the need for separation and purification of captured CO₂ before its conversion to product. For these systems, more research is required into molecules and materials discovery, catalytic mechanisms, process optimization, CO₂ stream purification,

and reactor design. Tandem processes can yield products that a single process alone cannot access and may have economic, energy savings, and/or environmental benefits, thus warranting increased research attention. Another promising opportunity is the integration of carbon mineralization with metal recovery, for which more research is needed in energy-efficient grinding/comminution, selective separation, improved recycling, reduced emissions, and systems integration and optimization. Hybrid systems need improvements in enzyme efficiency, stability, and selectivity; scalability of redox-balanced systems; and reactor design to optimize for specific intermediates and desired products. Research agenda items 5-F, 5-H, 6-H, 6-I, 7-L, 7-M, 8-D, 8-G, and 8-H describe needs related to integrated systems.

Energy Efficiency, Electrification, and Alternative Heating

Efficiency improvements and incorporation of clean electricity or other alternative heating methods will facilitate CO₂ utilization deployment under the energy and emissions constraints of a net-zero future. Improvements in energy efficiency, particularly in grinding/comminution, would be beneficial for carbon mineralization processes. Applied research is needed on engineering and systems optimization to integrate variable renewable energy and energy storage with reaction systems for thermochemical CO₂ conversion to chemicals. R&D on reaction electrification and heat integration, including electrolytic and plasma processes, and (pulsed) electrical heating, could yield energy savings and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (if clean electricity is used) for CO₂ conversion to chemicals, fuels, and elemental carbon products. Discovery research into catalysts that can best take advantage of these alternative electrically driven methods is also needed. Research agenda items 5-C, 5-H, 6-B, 6-F, 7-B, and 7-D describe research needs related to energy efficiency, electrification, and alternative heating.

Environmental and Societal Considerations for CO₂ and Coal Waste Utilization Technologies

To evaluate the potential for CO₂ and coal waste utilization to contribute to a net-zero future, their environmental impacts must be better understood. A greater understanding of emissions impacts of CO₂ utilization technologies within LCAs is needed, especially for non-CO₂ emissions and circular carbon processes. For circular processes, this includes understanding the leakage potential, the fate of products under different end of life conditions, and evolution of processes and demand through multiple cycles of use and reuse. More data and tools need to be developed to conduct LCAs and TEAs of coal waste utilization processes and to trace carbon across value chains over time. A better understanding the effect of CO₂ purity on the results of LCAs and TEAs could guide future R&D on CO₂ utilization technologies. Development of a protocol to assess the net environmental impacts of CO₂ mineralization at the gigatonne scale, including chemical toxicity, water requirements, and air quality, would help inform scale-up efforts. Ocean-based CO₂ mineralization requires better understanding of local environmental and ecological impacts, development of an environmental protocol to assess and mitigate unexpected impacts from pH changes, and evaluation of the recyclability of process water with spent acids, bases, and dissolved ions. In addition to environmental impacts, the societal impacts of carbon utilization need to be assessed across temporal and spatial scales, including the broader impacts of CO₂ conversion on the environment, resource (re-)allocation, distributional effects among regions, demographic groups, and communities, job gains and/or losses, and safeguards for disadvantaged communities. More information is needed about public perception of carbon utilization technologies and factors that influence community acceptance. Research agenda items 2-A, 3-A, 3-C, 3-D, 3-E, 3-F, 4-A, 5-D, 5-G, and 9-J describe research needs related to environmental and societal considerations for CO₂ and coal waste utilization technologies.

Computational Modeling and Machine Learning

Computational modeling and machine learning can help to understand and predict behavior of complex systems, providing knowledge that can be exploited to improve system integration, efficiency, safety, environmental

impacts, cost-effectiveness, and other factors. For example, in hybrid biological CO₂ conversion systems, computational modeling and machine learning can be used to guide more efficient conversion of various intermediates into bioproducts. Related to infrastructure development, computational tools are needed to design optimal multimodal transportation networks to collect CO₂ captured from stranded emitters for centralized utilization. Additionally, CO₂ dispersion modeling is used to determine minimum safe distances to populated areas and for emergency response planning. More work is needed on simulating the fluid/structure interaction and subsequent atmospheric dispersion for the case of accidental rupture of buried CO₂ pipelines that results in formation of a crater owing to the high momentum CO₂ jet. Research agenda items 8-B, 8-C, 10-A, and 10-D describe research needs related to computational modeling and machine learning at the systems level.

Demonstration and Deployment Needs

Reactor Design and Reaction Engineering

Improvements to reactor design and reaction engineering will be critical in moving from basic and applied research to technology demonstrations and commercially viable systems. Building on needs for systems-level understanding of reactor/reaction systems and processes (see section 11.2.3.2), the committee identified several research needs for demonstration-scale projects. For emerging carbon mineralization systems, demonstration projects can help to identify and address challenges that may arise when moving toward gigatonne-scale production, including energy requirements for large-scale mining and mineral processing, process integration, chemical recycling, and water requirements, including for electrochemically driven systems. In biological hybrid systems, demonstration projects will inform integration and scale up of catalysis and bioconversion and facilitate evaluation of economic and environmental impacts. Demonstrations of coal waste conversions into long-lived carbon products, such as engineered composites, graphite, graphene, carbon fiber, and carbon foam, can similarly indicate the feasibility to generate products for the construction, energy storage, transportation, and defense industries. Research agenda items 5-C, 5-F, 8-G, and 9-D describe research needs–related demonstrations of reactor design and reaction engineering.

Certification and Standards

In some cases, CO₂ and coal waste utilization generate products that are not chemically identical to current products for the same application, so standards and certification methods will need to be developed to ensure that these products meet technical and safety requirements. This is particularly relevant for CO₂- and coal waste–derived construction materials, where the mechanical, thermal, electrical, and/or chemical properties need to be evaluated to ensure that the materials conform with codes specific to their intended application. Additionally, standards will need to be established for using coal waste in applications with environmental exposure to ensure product safety, given the potential presence of toxic heavy metals in coal waste streams. Research agenda items 5-J, 9-E, 9-G, 9-H, 9-I, and 9-J describe research needs related to certification and standards.

Enabling Technology and Infrastructure Needs

A common research need across CO₂ and coal waste utilization approaches is optimizing multimodal transportation networks to move feedstocks (e.g., CO₂, coal wastes, reactant minerals, hydrogen) to sites of production and products (e.g., inorganic carbonates, chemicals, solid carbon materials, critical minerals) to markets. This will require developing robust computational tools that analyze cost, safety, and environmental impact to determine possible transportation infrastructure solutions. In a similar vein, TEAs are needed to determine whether, for small- to medium-scale emitters, it is preferable to perform CO₂ utilization on site and transport the products or transport captured CO₂ from the facility for utilization or storage elsewhere. To improve the safety of CO₂ transportation by pipeline, more research is needed on (1) understanding and developing approaches to mitigate issues with propagating brittle and ductile fractures and (2) dispersion modeling calculations for the accidental rupture of buried

CO₂ pipelines that results in formation of a crater owing to the high-momentum CO₂ jet. With this knowledge, software could be developed for use as a design and decision-making tool for pipeline developers to mitigate risks associated with pipeline failures. For thermochemical CO₂ conversion to achieve net-zero emissions at commercial scale, continued research and development into low-carbon hydrogen and other carbon-neutral reductants will be required. Research agenda items 5-B, 7-C, 9-B, 10-A, 10-B, 10-C, 10-D, and 10-E describe research needs related to enabling technologies and infrastructure.

Resource Mapping

Understanding the full potential for CO₂ mineralization and coal waste utilization will require evaluation and mapping of resources used in those processes—that is, minerals, industrial wastes, and coal waste streams. More information is needed about the composition, volume, and locations of these resources, as well as their chemical and physical properties. Research agenda items 5-A and 9-A describe research needs related to resource mapping.

Research Centers and Facilities

Research centers and facilities can play a role in technology development and scale up, as they can enable testing under real-world conditions. For example, the DOE-funded direct air capture (DAC) and hydrogen hubs could incorporate CO₂ utilization research and provide testing platforms for CO₂ utilization technologies. This opportunity would be especially beneficial for co-located hubs, which could demonstrate and scale up production of net-zero fuels and chemicals using CO₂ from DAC combined with clean hydrogen. The committee also sees a need to develop two centers for carbon mineralization research: (1) a testing facility platform, similar to the National Carbon Capture Center, where various ocean-based carbon mineralization concepts and technologies can be evaluated in real ocean conditions with minimal environmental impacts and (2) university–industry–national laboratory collaborations to rapidly scale up and deploy carbon-negative mining technologies with large CO₂ utilization potential. Research agenda items 5-E and 5-I describe these needs for research centers and facilities.

Market Opportunities

For CO₂ and coal waste utilization to meet their full potential, there needs to be a better understanding of market projections for carbon-based products and critical minerals that take into consideration national targets for the transition to net-zero emissions. The development of strategies to link feedstocks to production sites to product markets, discussed under “enabling infrastructure needs” above, will facilitate market development. Research agenda items 2-B, 5-C, and 9-B describe research needs related to market opportunities.

RESEARCH NEEDS DIRECTED TO DOE OFFICES

As discussed above, DOE is the primary funder of CO₂ and coal waste utilization research, in particular through the sponsoring offices of this study: Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, Basic Energy Sciences, Biological and Environmental Research, and Bioenergy Technologies. Tables E-3 to E-6 present the research agenda items directed to each of these DOE offices.

TABLE E-3 Research Agenda Items Directed to DOE-FECM

TABLE E-4 Research Agenda Items Directed to DOE-BES

TABLE E-5 Research Agenda Items Directed to DOE-BER

TABLE E-6 Research Agenda Items Directed to DOE-BETO

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