Development, Implementation, and Evaluation of Community-Based Suicide Prevention Grants Programs: Proceedings of a Workshop (2025)
Chapter: 2 Setting the Stage: Examples of Non-Clinical Community-Based Suicide Prevention Programs
2
Setting the Stage: Examples of Non-Clinical Community-Based Suicide Prevention Programs
Following the opening session, the workshop turned to presentations on five programs that provide support for non-clinical community-based suicide prevention efforts. These presentations were designed to frame later sessions and ground them in real-world experience. Providing detailed overviews of their programs ahead of in-depth sessions on program oversight, implementation, and evaluation, as well as communication of program results, allowed attendees to better understand the context for the contributions of these program leaders as panelists in those later sessions—particularly how program characteristics such as setting, population served, duration, and infrastructure shaped their insights on the topics at hand. The programs described varied in size, scope, and length of time in operation, thus offering diverse perspectives on challenges, innovations, and lessons applicable across community-based suicide prevention efforts.
USAA FACE THE FIGHT INITIATIVE
David Rozek (Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas Health San Antonio [UT Health San Antonio] and Senior Scientific Advisor for the Face the Fight initiative) provided an overview of Face the Fight, which was officially launched in 2023. He stated that it was founded by USAA, the Humana Foundation, and Reach Resilience to bring together veteran-serving organizations, foundations, non-profits, corporations, and others interested in joining the effort to pool resources and expertise for raising awareness and supporting veteran suicide prevention. Face the Fight is dedicated to expanding access
to and availability of evidence-based, proven suicide prevention programs with the overarching mission of making a measurable, lasting reduction in veteran suicide rates, Rozek added.
Face the Fight Structure and Collaborative Model
Rozek described the three core components of the Face the Fight initiative:
- Public Awareness Campaign—An ongoing national effort to reduce stigma and promote awareness of resources for veteran suicide prevention.
- Coalition Engagement—A network of more than 250 organizations committed to taking meaningful actions, making sustained commitments, and collaborating across sectors to reduce veteran suicide.
- Grant-making—Strategic investments aimed at scaling evidence-informed interventions for suicide prevention and responding quickly to emerging needs.
He emphasized that the initiative is designed to leverage the strengths of every partner. While many coalition members do not have veteran suicide prevention as their primary mission, they bring valuable expertise, networks, and resources to advance the shared goal.
Face the Fight’s success relies on the coordinated efforts of the founding partners and key strategic partners, each contributing unique capabilities to the initiative, Rozek explained. The founding partners, USAA, Humana Foundation, and Reach Resilience, have developed an executive committee of key supporters to oversee Face the Fight. He added that USAA also uses internal staff and resources to provide foundational support that enables Face the Fight to operate effectively.
UT Health San Antonio, a strategic partner in the Face the Fight initiative, serves as the initiative’s day-to-day scientific advisor, providing research oversight, ensuring initiatives remain evidence based, and integrating emerging best practices, Rozek stated. This work also includes guiding the grant-making process to ensure grantees are implementing proven suicide prevention programs and continuing to gather important data to advance the science. In this capacity, Rozek continued, it co-leads the Scientific Advisory Committee, a group of multi-disciplinary experts who provide guidance on suicide prevention strategies and help shape the direction of Face the Fight.
Rozek noted that UT Health San Antonio also manages the technical assistance process for grantees. The technical assistance process starts
before a grant is awarded, he explained; the team works with prospective grantees to understand their infrastructure and needs, and how they can help the organization build, scale, or integrate evidence-informed suicide prevention practices. During the grant period, the technical assistance team meets with grantees at least monthly to support efforts toward long-term scalability and sustainability. A major goal, Rozek stated, is to promote program sustainability so that grantees do not face a “funding cliff,” where the conclusion of Face the Fight support would also mean the end of their programming.
Rozek added that the Elizabeth Dole Foundation brings considerable experience in running coalitions, so drawing on their expertise for leading the coalition enables Face the Fight to maximize the return on participation for coalition members. The Foundation also leads communications and engagement efforts, connecting both coalition members and broader audiences to the mission. Rozek stressed that across all components and partnerships, Face the Fight aims to remain flexible, nimble, and responsive to evolving needs in the veteran suicide prevention landscape.
Face the Fight Impact and Data-Driven Strategy
Rozek highlighted aspects of Face the Fight’s impact to date, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. He noted the Face the Fight coalition includes over 200 members, many of whom are non-profit veteran-serving organizations, as well as government liaisons. Their scientific advisory group is comprised of 32 members with diverse areas of expertise. The advisory group has held several listening sessions with veterans and veteran families and has collected significant feedback to ensure they understand the landscape, including problems that are sometimes missed, he added. Based on dynamic data modeling (explained below), the initiative is projected to have saved 6,500 lives by 2032.
Face the Fight–supported programs have screened 245,000 veterans for suicide risk using tools such as the Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS; Posner et al., 2011) in both clinical and community settings, Rozek shared. They have also delivered suicide-specific, evidence-informed interventions, including Brief Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Suicide Prevention (BCBT-SP) and Crisis Response Planning (CRP; Bryan & Rudd, 2018), to 39,000 veterans; trained over 800 clinicians on suicide-specific interventions (e.g., BCBT-SP, CRP); and engaged in over 12,000 conversations about secure firearms storage.
Rozek noted that Face the Fight takes a public health approach that is aligned with evidence-informed focus areas of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) model (see Figure 2-2). Currently, Face the Fight focuses on the first three areas of the model in their grant-making:
SOURCE: Presented by David Rozek on April 29, 2025.
SOURCE: Presented by David Rozek on April 29, 2025.
- Create protective environments,
- Strengthen access and delivery of suicide-specific care, and
- Identify and support people at risk.
Rozek added that they plan to expand to the other four areas as the initiative matures.
To measure impacts, Face the Fight uses a dynamic data modeling strategy adapted from a model developed by the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention as part of the Bold Goal,1 Rozek reported. Dynamic data modeling is a well-established decision-support tool to guide investments and actions to address complex public health issues like suicide. The approach
- Supports systems and public health approaches,
- Informs strategic decision-making,
- Supports measurement of progress,
- Offers flexibility, and
- Allows for adjustments in real time.
The model allows for scenario testing of scaling interventions to guide decisions about the most effective and impactful grant-making activities, Rozek explained. When thinking about providing grant funding, Face the Fight uses their dynamic data model to estimate how much impact the grant or organization will have—projecting the number of lives saved that they believe that grant will have. This also allows for planning in grant-making and ensuring that a more holistic and less siloed approach to funding occurs to maximize the impact of the funding portfolio, he noted.
Rozek stated that data collected from grantees, combined with data from the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and information from the relevant scientific literature, is regularly incorporated into the model, which is updated frequently. To illustrate how the model functions, he presented a simplified hypothetical example. If all Face the Fight–funded programs and interventions were turned off, the model would mirror the baseline rates reported in the Veteran Suicide Prevention Annual Report (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2024b). In this scenario, with 10,000 highly distressed veterans, the model would project approximately 700 suicide attempts and 70 deaths by suicide. Rozek then described a scenario in which a hypothetical intervention with a 50 percent effectiveness rate in reducing suicide attempts was introduced in the model. If all 10,000 veterans were to receive the intervention, the model would project a 50 percent reduction in
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1 The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention has taken on the Bold Goal to reduce the U.S. suicide rate by 20 percent by 2025. See https://afsp.org/the-bold-goal/
both suicide attempts and, in turn, suicide deaths, resulting in an estimated 35 lives saved. He emphasized that the actual model is significantly more complex, as different interventions have different levels of effectiveness and impact. Additionally, some individuals may receive multiple interventions, and the system accounts for interaction effects through integrated pipelines. As more data become available, Rozek added, the team will continue refining and validating different components of the dynamic model.
Examples of Funded Activities
Rozek highlighted two activities funded by Face the Fight. The first activity he described is the Pause to Protect initiative at the University of Colorado, which is working with five local retailers selling secure storage for firearms and investigating how much of a discount it takes to have veterans want to purchase some sort of secure storage. Face the Fight is examining how this intervention might be implemented nationally with corporate sponsors in a larger scale where couponing might be available across the country. The second activity highlighted by Rozek is an initiative at the Robert Irvine Foundation. Robert Irvine, a chef, was interested in using the power of food to bring people together in support of suicide prevention. The Face the Fight initiative helped the organization to think about how to bring peer-based and community-based response CRP and lethal means safety conversations into an effort that reaches many thousands of veterans in a more approachable and less clinical environment than is typical for these interventions.
Rozek concluded by noting that the ultimate goals of the Face the Fight initiative are to ensure grantees work across their coalition so that there is cross-pollination of ideas and practices, to think about scale and sustainability, and to measure outcomes over time.
VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS SERVICES SUICIDE PREVENTION AND OPIOID ADDICTION SERVICES PROGRAM
Brandi Jancaitis (Director, Virginia Veteran and Family Support Program, Virginia Department of Veterans Services) opened by reflecting on her dual perspective as both a public servant and a military family member. Her presentation highlighted the challenges and successes of rapidly developing a statewide infrastructure for suicide prevention and opioid addiction services aimed at supporting service members, veterans, and their families (SMVF) in Virginia.
The Virginia Department of Veterans Services Suicide Prevention and Opioid Addiction Services (SOS) program officially launched in July 2022, with a legislative mandate to address the problems of veteran suicide and
opioid addiction. Staff was tasked with putting together a best practices program and building a grant-making program within a year of the launch. Jancaitis likened this challenge to justifying the existence of the airport while building it and flying the plane simultaneously.
Program Launch and Growth
The SOS program has awarded $12.7 million to 59 community grantees, some of whom are finishing their second year of activity. The program also has eight research grantees who have been awarded nearly $1.65 million. The initial investment in the SOS program was $5.1 million annually. Program administrators were faced with the decision to either increase internal capacity by hiring more care coordinators and peers or to build a grant program. Rather than relying solely on internal care coordinators (which would have served an estimated 3,000 individuals annually), the team chose to fund community-based organizations. In just one year, 41 grantees reached more than 19,000 SMVF individuals, significantly exceeding projections for the number of veterans that would be served in the first year (see Figure 2-3). Infusing funding into the community was critical for taking the impact of the program to scale.
Grantee Diversity and Impact
Jancaitis reported that about half of the SOS grantees are clinical in nature with an outpatient counseling model and the other half are community-based efforts that provide a range of services including peer support, animal therapy, and case management. SOS grantees utilize a variety of evidence-based assessments (see Figure 2-4) to screen for behavioral health needs and suicide risk. After screening, SOS grantees directly provide support or refer those in need to other partner agencies for additional support.
In addition to the range in types of services offered, SOS grantees also range in size. This leads to some challenges with measurement, Jancaitis noted. One small standalone grantee might hire 1.5 people to provide services, while another grantee might be a larger organization with a 60-person team that pools SOS funds with Cohen Veterans Network2 and Fox Grant Program funds, as well as private funding. She stated that the question of how to tell the story of program impacts in a way that a little “mom and pop” grantee does not get dwarfed and bigger grantees still shine as well is a challenge SOS program leaders grapple with daily.
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2 The Cohen Veterans Network (https://www.cohenveteransnetwork.org/) is a national non-profit organization that works to strengthen mental health outcomes, complement existing support, and improve quality of life for veterans and their families.
NOTE: SMVF = service members, veterans, and their families.
SOURCE: Presented by Brandi Jancaitis on April 29, 2025; Virginia Department of Veterans Services (2024, p. 89).
NOTE: BCBTSP = Brief Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Suicide Prevention; CPT = Cognitive Processing Therapy; CSSRS = Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale; DASS = Depression Anxiety Stress Scale; DES-II = Dissociative Experiences Scale; EMDR = Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy; GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for DSM-5; PCL-M = PTSD Checklist – Military Version; PE = Prolonged Exposure Therapy; PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire-9; PROMIS-29 = Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System-29; PTSD = Post-traumatic Stress Disorder; SAFE-T = Suicide Assessment Five Ste Evaluation and Triage.
SOURCE: Presented by Brandi Jancaitis on April 29, 2025; Virginia Department of Veterans Services (2024, p. 90).
Employing military-connected individuals is another priority of the SOS program, Jancaitis shared. In addition to providing direct behavioral health and supportive services to individuals and families, SOS grantees hired over 70 military-connected individuals, contributing to Virginia Department of Veterans Services priority to support the entrepreneurial and career development goals of SMVF in local communities.
Jancaitis briefly highlighted the work of the eight SOS research grantees. SOS has both in-state and out-of-state partners working on topics such as adapting clinical best practices, surveying military-connected individuals to understand factors like disability status and military discharge implications and exploring a variety of risk and resilient factors among the military-connected population. She noted that one private research firm is examining the efficacy of community-based suicide prevention programs in Virginia.
Collaboration has been central to the SOS program’s success, Jancaitis explained. The program team partners with the Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and 988 call centers. The SOS program is the key trainer for the 988 call specialists in Virginia, providing information on military culture and what SMVF resources are available in the state. The SOS program has leveraged work on lethal means safety education and awareness with Lock and Talk Virginia.3 Jancaitis added that one of the umbrellas that has brought these partners together is the Governor’s Challenge to Prevent Suicide.4 Jancaitis concluded by underscoring the importance of this umbrella and the state investment in capacity for the success of the SOS program.
WHITE MOUNTAIN APACHE CELEBRATING LIFE SUICIDE PREVENTION PROGRAM
Mary Cwik and Novalene Alsenay Goklish (both with the Center for Indigenous Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University) described the White Mountain Apache Celebrating Life Suicide Prevention Program, which is a community-led, culturally grounded suicide prevention program developed in partnership with the Johns Hopkins University Center for Indigenous Health.
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3 Lock and Talk Virginia (https://www.lockandtalk.org/) is a statewide initiative that works to increase community engagement around mental health and advocate for the safe handling of lethal means like firearms and medications.
4 The Governor’s and Mayor’s Challenges to Prevent Suicide Among Service Members, Veterans, and their Families (https://www.samhsa.gov/technical-assistance/smvf/challenges) are nationwide initiatives led by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) and the VA to help states and communities implement comprehensive, coordinated suicide prevention strategies tailored to military-connected populations.
Tribal Context and Early Response to Suicide
Goklish, who is a member of the White Mountain Apache Tribe, described the context from the program. The White Mountain Apache Tribe resides on a 1.6-million-acre reservation (approximately the size of Delaware) in eastern Arizona with over 17,500 enrolled tribal members. Tribal members continue to practice traditional customs and language and are governed by an 11-member tribal council. She noted the tribe has partnered with Johns Hopkins University for over 40 years.
Goklish explained that suicide was rare in the community prior to the 1950s, and episodic spikes in youth suicide began to emerge in the 1990s. The tribe requested assistance from Johns Hopkins University in 1992 to understand and address suicide in the community. Suicide is taboo in Native American communities, Goklish shared, so it was difficult for community members to understand what was happening and how to address the problem.
Following another spike in suicide deaths in 2000, the tribe passed a resolution in 2002 mandating reporting of suicidal behaviors, including ideation, attempts, and deaths, as well as non-suicidal self-injury and binge substance use, and the tribe worked with Johns Hopkins University to set up the Celebrating Life Suicide Prevention Program, which includes surveillance of suicidal and other harmful behaviors and a case management system, Goklish reported.
The Celebrating Life Surveillance and Case Management System
Cwik highlighted impactful aspects of the Celebrating Life surveillance system, noting that the data are collected in real time, the community owns the data, and they know the data avoid the problem of racial and ethnic misidentification that can come with larger data-gathering efforts. The data enable them to look at risk and protective factors and patterns in suicide over time to understand the impacts the program is making in their communities.
Goklish noted that in 2006, the tribal resolution was expanded to require reservation-wide reporting from all community members and first responders, and to ensure that referrals were being sent to the Celebrating Life program. Goklish described efforts undertaken by trained case managers under the program. They conduct in-person follow-ups for each report of suicidal behavior or substance use, verify incident details, provide wellness checks, assist with referrals, and engage in problem-solving related to accessing services. Case managers work with the individual to identify solutions to problems they are facing and how to address circumstances that may lead them to feel that they do not have a lot that is positive
happening in their lives. Goklish added examples of the types of challenges that case managers may help individuals overcome, such as wanting to return to school or to find housing.
Goklish listed the three culturally adapted components of the Celebrating Life program designed to complement the surveillance and case management system:
- Elders Resilience Curriculum,
- New Hope risk reduction intervention, and
- Bright Horizons substance abuse prevention and intervention.
She provided a brief overview of the Elders’ Resilience Curriculum, a school-based program that delivers monthly lessons to students in grades 3 through 8. The program focuses on suicide prevention, but the Elders do not speak directly about suicide. Rather, the Elders discuss topics such as respect, Apache culture, endurance, self-worth, and communication. The program reflects the community’s view that teaching Apache culture and speaking the language is an important way to build connectedness, identity, and strength.
Cwik explained that the Celebrating Life program takes a comprehensive public health approach to suicide prevention as there is no single intervention that will lead to zero suicide. She turned to describing the New Hope component of the program, which is a brief, community-delivered intervention designed for individuals at high risk following an acute suicide event such as suicidal ideation or an attempt leading to an emergency room visit. Delivered by trained Apache paraprofessionals, the intervention includes safety planning and addresses barriers to accessing mental health care. It is designed to be delivered in one or two sessions totaling only two to four hours because lengthier treatment programs may not be realistic in some community contexts.
Celebrating Life Program Impact
Celebrating Life has been associated with substantial reductions in suicide outcomes, Cwik shared. During a five-year period when multiple community-based interventions were active, the tribe saw a 38 percent reduction in suicide deaths and a 53 percent reduction in suicide attempts (see Figure 2-5). These findings contributed to the program receiving funding from the National Institutes of Health to formally evaluate New Hope and the Elders’ Resilience Curriculum through a study involving over 300 Apache youth and young adults aged 10–29; findings from the evaluation will be published soon.
Goklish noted that inequities in suicide death rates in American Indian and Alaska Native youth are expected to continue to widen unless
SOURCE: Presented by Mary Cwik and Novalene Alsenay Goklish on April 29, 2025.
SOURCE: Presented by Mary Cwik and Novalene Alsenay Goklish on April 29, 2025.
interventions are scaled (see Figure 2-6). Cwik added that other tribal communities have shown interest in the Celebrating Life approach, and Johns Hopkins has provided technical assistance to tribes including the Navajo Nation, San Carlos Apache, Hualapai, and Cherokee Nation in adapting the surveillance and case management system.
Cwik concluded by highlighting the importance of tribal sovereignty in enabling innovative, collective responses to suicide prevention. The White Mountain Apache model demonstrates that communities benefit from combining crisis response with upstream, preventive strategies that are culturally relevant and locally managed. She emphasized that Indigenous and veteran communities are both at the forefront of suicide prevention, with valuable insights to offer the broader field.
GARRETT LEE SMITH AND NATIVE CONNECTIONS SUICIDE PREVENTION PROGRAMS
Richard McKeon (Senior Advisor, SAMHSA) discussed the Garrett Lee Smith (GLS) and Native Connections suicide prevention programs administered by SAMHSA. He began by noting that community-based suicide prevention is the first strategic direction in the revised U.S. National Strategy for Suicide Prevention.5
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5 https://www.hhs.gov/programs/prevention-and-wellness/mental-health-substance-use-disorder/national-strategy-suicide-prevention/index.html
Origin and Structure of the GLS Program
The GLS suicide prevention program was established through the Garrett Lee Smith Memorial Act, which was passed in 2004 following the death by suicide of Garrett Lee Smith, son of U.S. Senator Gordon Smith, McKeon explained. Senator Smith considered resigning from the Senate in the wake of this tragedy, but realized he could do more to honor his son’s memory by working to advance youth suicide prevention efforts at the federal level.
McKeon stated that the GLS program includes three components:
- State and Tribal Youth Suicide Prevention Grants
- Campus Suicide Prevention Grants
- Suicide Prevention Resource Center
Table 2-1 presents a comparison of the grant-making components of the GLS program. McKeon focused on the State and Tribal Youth Suicide Prevention Grants for the GLS component of his presentation.
In contrast to the Staff Sargeant Parker Gordon Fox Suicide Prevention Grant Program, McKeon noted, GLS State and Tribal Youth Suicide Prevention Grants are awarded to state agencies or tribes, rather than individual organizations, though those entities may designate an organization to administer the funds. For example, the White Mountain Apache Tribe designated Johns Hopkins Center for Indigenous Health and the state of New Hampshire designated National Alliance on Mental Illness New Hampshire. The state and tribal grants require that recipients implement activities as part of a comprehensive youth suicide prevention plan. The program focuses on youth and young adults, historically ages 10–24, though SAMHSA recently removed the lower age limit to support earlier interventions.
TABLE 2-1 Comparison of the Grant-Making Components of the Garrett Lee Smith (GLS) Program
| GLS State/Tribal | GLS Campus |
|---|---|
| 5-year grant | 3-year grant |
| Available to states and tribes | Available to higher education institutions |
| Supports suicide prevention activities, through a public health approach, for youth up to 24 years old | Supports student suicide prevention activities |
| $735,000/year | $102,000/year (requires matching funds) |
SOURCE: Staff generated based on presentation by Richard McKeon on April 29, 2025.
McKeon reported that GLS-funded activities include screening and gatekeeper training (e.g., Question, Persuade, and Refer [commonly referred to as QPR], Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test [commonly referred to as ASSIST]), improving care transitions, follow-up after emergency room discharge, use of hotlines (now promoting 988), enhancing social connectedness, engaging high-risk populations such as youth in foster care or engaged with the juvenile justice system, and improving lethal means safety.
Evaluation Findings, Impact, and Program Reach
McKeon shared that the initial thinking was that providing a three-year grant and then having grantees develop a sustainability program would be sufficient, but evaluation findings demonstrated sustained investment yields stronger outcomes. Initial evaluations showed reductions in youth suicide after one year of GLS programming. However, impacts declined once programming stopped, prompting SAMHSA to lengthen and increase grant funding. As shown in Figure 2-7, more recent evaluations using propensity score matching6 showed that counties with four consecutive years of GLS programming experienced greater reductions in youth suicide than counties with shorter durations of programming. GLS results show that suicide prevention is never a one-and-done effort and underscore the importance of ongoing funding to support community-based efforts for sustaining significant impacts, McKeon added.
McKeon turned to discussing the geographic reach of the GLS program. As shown in Figure 2-8, in fiscal year (FY) 2021, GLS State and Tribal Grants were awarded to 24 states, 2 U.S. territories, and 28 tribes. While the program had national reach, it did not touch every county, which allowed for comparison in evaluations.
Native Connections Program
McKeon concluded his presentation with a brief description of SAMHSA’s Native Connections (Tribal Behavioral Health) program, which was developed to offer a grant-based structure specifically for tribal suicide prevention. Unlike GLS, which was competitive and focused on youth, Native Connections began with the idea of universal tribal grants modeled after state
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6 Propensity score matching is a statistical technique used to pair individuals in a treatment or intervention group with individuals in a control group based on similar propensity scores (the estimated probability of receiving the treatment given their observed baseline characteristics). This approach creates matched pairs that are similar on key factors (such as age, health status, or income), helping to ensure that any observed differences in outcomes are more likely attributable to the treatment itself rather than to underlying differences between the groups.
SOURCE: Presented by Richard McKeon on April 29, 2025; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2024a, p. 46).
block grants. Although the formula-based model was not adopted, competitive grants were launched, with Congress directing SAMHSA to target tribes with high suicide rates—though McKeon noted that tribal-specific suicide data were not available at the time. SAMHSA staff worked with tribes to help them calculate their rate using CDC data and determine whether they were above the midpoint for American Indian and Alaska Native suicide rates nationally. Each Native Connections grant is $250,000 annually.
SOURCE: Presented by Richard McKeon on April 29, 2025.
REFERENCES
Bryan, C. J., & Rudd, M. D. (2018). Brief cognitive-behavioral therapy for suicide prevention. The Guilford Press.
Posner, K., Brown, G. K., Stanley, B., Brent, D. A., Yershova, K. V., Oquendo, M. A., Currier, G. W., Melvin, G. A., Greenhill, L., Shen, S., & Mann, J. J. (2011). The Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale: Initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1266–1277. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10111704
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2024a). National strategy for suicide prevention. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/national-strategy-suicide-prevention.pdf
___. (2024b). 2024 national veteran suicide prevention annual report. Part 1 of 2: In-depth reviews. https://www.mentalhealth.va.gov/docs/data-sheets/2024/2024-Annual-Report-Part-1-of-2_508.pdf
Virginia Department of Veterans Services (2024, December 1). Commissioner’s 2024 annual report to Governor Glenn Youngkin, Secretary Craig Crenshaw, and the Virginia General Assembly. https://rga.lis.virginia.gov/Published/2024/RD907/PDF
